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    What Features and Structural Relationships Make the Streets of Tel Aviv City Being a Legible? An Urban Design Perspective
    Hernan Casakin and Itzhak Omer
    Abstract The way people represent visual information of an environment reflects the mental image that they have about it. The legibility of physical environments like cities has a strong influence on that the quality of such mental image. Two empirical tasks were conducted in order to study what are features and structural relationships that contribute to the imageability and visual quality of the streets of Tel Aviv city. Qanalysis was used as a methodological approach to assess visual information retrieved from sketch maps, and from a survey carried out by students. Results showed paths were the most imageable urban elements, followed by landmarks and nodes. Districts and border have a low-imageability. Additional findings that revealed that high-legible paths have combined features like: large number of business and offices, visible landmarks, major road system, public transportation, and easy accessibility. In contrast, low-legible streets were primarily characterized by the existence of repetitive dwelling buildings, vegetation, and a secondary importance in the city network. Under an urban design viewpoint, the study of relationships among the features of paths enabled to enhance our understanding on the spatial quality of the urban environment. Moreover, it provided an insight for designing more legible environments.
    
    Introduction
    Maps are considered to be efficient tools for representing and visualizing information from the physical environment (Barkowsky et al., 2000; Berendt et al., 1998; Freksa, 1999; Palmer, 1978). The rationale of communicating specific visual information from the
    
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    environment has a large influence in the kind of information either to be included or discarded from a map (Hirtle, 2000; MacEachren, 1995; Tversky, 2000). Sketch maps are schematic selfrepresentations generated through free-hand sketching. They are seen as ideal means for representing specific information about a physical environment at a coarse level of detail. Sketch maps are characterized by a powerful capability to communicate qualitative spatial information, and for the exclusion or simplification of spatial information (Casakin, 2004; Casakin et al., 2000; Freksa et al., 2000). Another important feature is that they help understand the way people perceive, remember, and represent in their minds the real urban environment (Haken and Portugali, 2003). According to Lynch (1960), the visual quality of a city is strongly related to the collective mental image that their residents have about that city. The production of sketch maps constitutes a valuable tool for gaining further insight in the mental image that people have about the cities they live in. The current research deals with the collective mental image that people have about the streets of Tel Aviv city. It aims to identify what are those high-legible and lowlegible streets in the collective mental image, and to clarify what are the main architectural features of the environment that affect (or are responsible for) this image. The following three sections deal with the research background. A brief introduction to individual and aggregative cognitive maps, the visual quality of the city image, and the effect in the design of urban environments is presented. Section 5 describes the two tasks considered in the empirical study, , and the way Q-Analysis method is used to analyze common shared features of individual sketch maps of Tel Aviv. Results provided in this section are considered for the construction of a collective map of the city. Section 6 presents conclusions concerned with the collective image of the urban environment, with implications for urban design.
    
    Imageability and Visual Quality of the City
    In 1960 Kevin Lynch presented in his book ‘The image of the city’ the major role of cognitive representations in relation to the study of
    
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    city form. The goal was to gain insight in the aspects that causes a city be more legible. The idea of imageability was posed for the study of cognitive maps (See next section), and the analysis of city form. Lynch (1960) defined imageability or legibility as the physical quality of an object or an environment that enhances chances of inducing a strong image in a viewer. Imageability or visual quality enables to identify, understand, and represent parts of the environment into a coherent whole. Legibility or imageability, refers to the level of difficulty with which the component parts of a city can be mentally represented, and reorganized into a coherent pattern. A coherent organization allows remembering spatial relationships between urban elements (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1982). The underlying order derived from a legible city allows people to become familiar with the environment, move, spatially orientate, and find their way. For example, the existence of landmarks or paths that are easily identifiable contributes to visual quality and legibility of the city. The extent to which the legibility of a city can be enhanced by certain distinctive environmental elements and configurations is still a topic of debate. For example, Nasar (1988) found that visual quality has influential effects on people’s experience and on the enjoyment about the environment. Rappoport (1990) noted the influence that memory, and culture have on the way information about the environment is retrieved and processed. In his view, people sharing a same culture processes and recognizes visual quality of an environment using similar schemas or prototypes. This schema guides the behavior and actions of the residents in these environments. Studies carried out by Abu-Ghazzeh (1997) and by Ramadier & Moser (1998) explored how the visual quality of a physical environment have an effect in the formation of the image of place, and how this contributed to orientate in space.
    
    Cognitive Maps
    An environmental image is the overlap of many individual images considered by Lynch (1960) as the by-product of a two-way process between the people and their surroundings. The underlying assumption is that the environment provides information about the
    
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    imageability of city elements, and people add meaning and represent it by means of a cognitive map. A mental map or cognitive map is defined as a mental schema used to systematize and arrange partial spatial information about the physical environment that cannot be perceived as a whole (e.g., Tolman, 1948). In domains such as design and town planning, cognitive mapping enables to study city form. Lynch (1960) used cognitive maps to study the effect that the architectural structure of buildings and cities have on the internal representations of people, i.e. the urban image. Individual and Aggregative (Composite) Cognitive maps A characteristic of cognitive maps is that they represent common shared preferences or differences concerned with the environment where the observer is located. Cognitive maps can be seen as the representation that a single individual has about the physical environment, as well as the common shared view that many individuals have on the same environment. The former, known as the individual cognitive map, represents the personal interpretations that an observer have about the physical environment. The later is referred to as a composite or aggregative cognitive map, and is the outcome of a collective representation or sum of representations carried out by a large number of people. The underling idea of aggregative maps is that at a higher level of abstraction, people share a common view about stronger and significant elements and features of the environment. For example, Young (1999) used composite sketch-maps to investigate the common shared spatial knowledge recollected by visitors of large-scale and unfamiliar natural environments. The attention of the present study will be centered on the aggregative cognitive map or image of a city (also called the shared ‘public image’ by Lynch, 1960). Rather than analyzing individual differences, we will concentrate on the composite or overlapping mental images collected from the aggregative maps produced by a group of inhabitants of Tel Aviv city. The importance of aggregative maps resides in maps their ability to capture the visual quality of a city as perceived by its residents (e.g.; Casakin, submitted; Casakin, 2003; Nasar & Hong, 1999). The representation
    
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    of the visible elements of the environment in aggregative maps sets an emphasis in the structure of a city and in its level of imageability in a highly-conceptual level (Al-Zoabi, 2004; Burgess, 1978; Harrison & Howard, 1972; Pocock & Hudson, 1978). Imageability, Mental Maps and the Design of Urban Environments Urban designers devote huge efforts to produce environmental images endowed with powerful physical features that are easy to understand and remember. Cities holding strong images generally have significant chances to convey a sharper image of it into the mental maps of their residents. Lynch (1960) pioneered the study of cognitive maps for improving urban design. Lynch’s urban image theory suggested that in a well designed city, five types of urban elements classified into paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks should be successfully interrelated in order to arrive to an imageable environment. Paths are ways of movement, like walkways, roads, routes, or streets. Landmarks are prominent points of reference that may vary in scale, such as towers or skyscrapers. Districts are areas that have in common similar characteristics that endow them with homogeneous character. Edges are boundaries or limits that separate two different areas, such as rivers, avenues, or high-speed ways. Nodes are central points or focal locations, such as the intersection of two major roads. These elements will be considered in the current study to study the imageability of Tel Aviv city. The research line established by Lynch was very influential on later academic works that centered their attention on the relationship between cognitive mapping and urban design (e.g., Aitken et al., 1989; Golledge and Stimson, 1997; Madinapour, 1996). Halseth and Doddridge (2000) presented KIDSMAP, a project targeted to gather environmental information on what interests children in their surroundings. Other environmental design studies aimed at improving the legibility of cities by reducing cognitive overload, for wayfinding tasks (e.g., Chien and Flemming, 2002; Golledge, 1999; Passini, 1996). Additional researches focused on the relationship between the legibility of the urban environment and the socioeconomic status
    
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    (e.g., Arefi and Meyers, 2003). Nasar (1994) found that preferences and shared meanings for certain features of some architectural styles denoting social status contribute to the design of legible public spaces. Nasar (1998) stressed the importance of studying the image of the city to learn how people evaluate cityscape, and how they react to various environments according to their feelings. Nasar developed a method of surveying residents through the use of phone surveys and the production of sketch maps. With the intention to produce an unique ‘evaluative image’ of the community that could guide future design and development, the implemented method helped to found out what are those areas of the community that residents like and dislike most. Al-kodmany (2001) proposed an interactive Webbased survey and visualization tool that was developed to advance a community planning process. The tool was based on the studies of Lynch (1960) and Nasar (1998) about the ‘evaluative image’ of a community. In contrast to Nasar’s approach, Al-kodmany used a Web site to allow interaction with maps. A link between the internet site and a GIS program allowed to survey and map residents’ preferences. A common finding of previous studies indicated that urban elements seem to have a good visual quality if they are frequently cited or remembered by people. This is why designers should be more interested in exploring what are those environmental features associated to imageable city elements. Knowing how people perceive and judge city form could lead to “a set of recommendations and controls …concerned with visual form on the urban scale” (Lynch, 1960, pp. 116). No matter how successful the design of a city might be, the legibility of a city is to some extent the consequence of an interactive and ambiguous process between an observer and the physical environment. Nasar (1988) claimed that in well designed cities, form and appearance must satisfy the expectations of a large public who habitually experiences it. To gain an insight about the impact that city form has on its users, it is necessary to evaluate people’s responses.
    
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    Studying what type of images residents have of their cities, can aid to obtain crucial information in how to improve and design the physical form of these cities. Despite research carried out on image quality and urban legibility, imageability continues to be a critical concept not always fully understood in the design of cities. Designers still have a contribution to make in order to improve the design of cities, and to make the city more legible for its inhabitants. The question of what are those elements and visual qualities of an environment that enable to communicate a strong and legible image still needs to be addressed. The analysis of the five urban elements proposed by Lynch in an aggregative cognitive map, and understanding the image quality of the streets of Tel Aviv city in particular, is a major objective of the current research.
    
    Empirical Research
    Goals The first goal of this research is to identify what are the imageable elements of Tel Aviv city. For that aim we will investigate what are those urban elements that appear in the aggregative cognitive maps of the Tel Aviv residents. We consider that high-level imageability urban elements have more chances to be remembered by residents who experience the city every day. It is posed that their strong visual qualities turn them into memorable spatial configurations. The second goal of this research is to gain a better insight about the differences between urban elements with a different level of imageability by investigating the structural-spatial configuration that characterizes them. By focusing in the paths of the city, we will investigate what are the most relevant features that characterize elements with high-level, in contrast to low-level of imageability. In addition, we will verify to what extent features from the different paths of Tel Aviv relate to each other. These will enable us to understand what are the characteristics, qualities, and major relationships that help people to perceive and remember particular paths of the environment, and to disregard others.
    
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    The third goal of this research is to elaborate on possible consequences for urban design, based on the qualities of the imageable elements of the city. Rather than considering the design of the city from an aesthetic viewpoint, we will study the image of the city, with a particular focus on paths as people experiences them. Learning how people perceive and evaluate elements of the city can help to propose recommendations or guides for shaping better city form. Designing a city with a high-level of imageability may have consequences for improving communication between people and their environment. In order to deal the goals, two empirical tasks were conducted in this study. While in the first task we will identify what are the most imageable elements of Tel Aviv, in the second task we will consider some of these elements, and investigate what are the features that contribute to enhance the imageability of them. Empirical Task: The Construction of a Collective Map The aim of the first task of this study was to construct the collective urban image of Tel Aviv. Such image enabled us to see how residents perceive and remember their city. The underlying assumption was that city image, which is actually the overlap of many individual images, provides information on the imageability of the city elements. Subjects Twenty four students of the Department of Geography participated in the first task. A basic requirement for subjects to participate in the experiment was to live or to have lived in Tel Aviv for a period of two years at least. Procedure The empirical task was carried out in individual sessions. Participants were asked to draw a sketch map of Tel Aviv that should include a number of dominant elements of the city. Subjects were given approximately 2 minutes to read the general instructions, and they were assigned another 15 minutes to complete the task. The number
    
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    of elements to be included in the map was restricted to fifteen, so that only the most imageable elements would emerge. Assessment The data obtained from each of the individual sketch maps was gathered into one aggregative map representing the residents’ urban image of Tel Aviv (See Figure 2)C. In order to create a representative urban image, only those elements that appeared in more than two individual sketch maps were included in the aggregative map. The elements represented in the individual sketch maps were classified according to the five urban elements proposed by Lynch (1960; 1965) referring to paths, landmarks, districts, edges, and nodes). Assessment of the urban image of Tel Aviv From the results obtained in this study it was possible to understand the configuration of the collective map of Tel Aviv according to high-level imageability elements (often included in the individual sketch maps), and low-level imageability elements (seldom included in the individual sketch maps). As illustrated in Figure 3, paths, landmarks, and nodes were the most imageable elements, while districts and borders were found to be low-imageable. Frequencies corresponding to the different urban elements were classified into main groups and depicted in Figure 2. A further analysis of paths, the most imageable elements of Tel Aviv, is presented in the following section. Survey The aim of the second task was to find out what urban features, and what relationships among features affect high-imageable and low-imageable paths of Tel Aviv city. A survey dealing with the features of the paths of Tel Aviv was provided to students. Subjects Twenty students of the Department of Geography, who did not take part in the first task, participated in the survey. A basic
    
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    requirement for subjects to participate in the second task was to live or to have lived in the past in Tel Aviv for at least two years. Procedure Subjects were provided with a list of fourteen paths, and were requested to describe each of them according to their three major features such as visual properties, functional properties, etc. Paths assigned in the second experiment were selected from the individual sketch maps produced in the first experiment. These were classified into seven high-imageable paths, and seven low-imageable paths for further analysis. It should be noted that during the task participants were unaware of the differences between the two groups of paths. Students were given approximately 20 minutes to complete the task. Structural analysis method Data obtained from the survey was submitted to a structural analysis method. This method was used to analyze relationships established by students between the different features of the paths. It consists in the possibility to identify a group of properties with certain relations between them, namely, structural relations, which either enable high imageability of a given path, or rather prevent it. Such information could improve understanding on the relationship between the properties of urban layout. A consequence of this could be the improvement of legibility in urban design. Lynch was aware of the importance of the structural relationships of the urban image. He noted that “…there was a lack of information on element interrelations, patterns, sequences and wholes. Better methods must be evolved to approach these vital aspects” (Lynch, 1960, p.155). In order to formalize this view, this study will consider a methodological approach related to the topological structure of the urban image. As suggested by Omer et al. (2005) we analyzed this structure by using the multidimensional scaling method of Q-Analysis (Atkin, 1974). In order to detect major configurations that characterize the imageable paths of Tel Aviv, features obtained from the survey were classified according to previously described categories, and
    
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    processed through Q-Analysis. The method allows finding out how residents organize relations between path features. Basic concepts that underlie Q-analysis are sets of objects and the relation between these sets. In terms of our case in consideration, let C be the set of m paths (i=1..m) so that C= {c1, c2, …, cm}, and P a set of n features (j=1..n) so that P= {p1,p2,…, pn}. Let m indicate that a pair of paths (ci, pj) are related. If a path ci is related to feature pj, then ci is related to pj by the relation m, i.e. (ci, pj) Î m. The dimension of a path denoted by q. On the basis of presence or absence of relations between pairs of elements from sets C and P (incidence matrix) a simplical complex KC(P; m) was constructed, which represents the topological structure. The simplical complex allows to identify the direct connectivity between features in each dimension (q-near). For example, 3-near denotes that the features related to q+1 (4) paths, and their indirect connectivity between features (q-connectivity) connected transitively by different q+1 paths. The topological structure KC (P;m) enables us to acquire the relations between the urban features. Sequence of High-Imageability Paths In order to identify the difference between the paths according their imageability we divided the paths into two groups according two main dimensions dealing high-imageability paths and lowimageability paths. The frequencies of categories for highimageability paths obtained from the analysis carried out on the empirical tasks were analyzed by Q-analysis method. The following graphs present results regarding relationships found between the different categories of features at different dimensions (i.e., Q3, Q4, Q5, and Q6). Results revealed that landmarks were the most cited element in high-imageability paths of Tel Aviv. In addition, it was found that a path with high-imageability needs to combine the landmarks with a large number of business and offices, be part of a major road system, with public transportation and easy accessibility. The path must be long (cross many parts of the city), and be surrounded by dwellings.
    
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    Sequence of Low-imageability Paths In addition to the previous analysis, frequencies of categories for low-imageability paths obtained from the analysis carried out on the empirical tasks were submitted to Q-analysis test. Figure 5 illustrates findings regarding relationships found between the different features at different dimensions (i.e., Q3, Q4, Q5, and Q6). In contrast to previous findings, results from the group of low-imageablity paths were characterized by the combination of dwellings, green areas with vegetation, and a monotonous rhythm, mainly due to the existence of repetitive building types.
    
    Conclusions
    An empirical work divided into two main tasks was carried out. In the first empirical task the configuration pattern that characterize Tel Aviv city was identified. Findings showed that analysis of the high frequencies (more than 70% over the low frequency elementssee aggregative map) of the imageable urban elements of the city, showed that Tel Aviv has relatively strong public image. Urban elements extracted from the collective map produced by students were classified according to two groups characterized by high-level and low-level imageability. These were organized according to the five urban elements proposed by Lynch, i.e., landmarks, paths, districts, nodes, and borders. In the second empirical task, high-imageability and low-imageability paths were considered to study major differences in structural relations between features. A structural method for analyzing ‘public image’ of the city was developed. The method enabled to overcome problems related to the assessment of structure and quality of connection between urban elements, and to gain insight in how they relate to the city. Significant differences were found between highimageability and low-imageability paths. While in the first group significant relationships were found between offices, businesses, legible landmarks and good accessibility, the existence of dwelling buildings, small businesses, and vegetation were characteristic in the second group. It is worth noting that although low-imageable
    
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    and high-imageable paths were characterized by the existence of a business area, standing alone, this feature was not enough to strength the imageability of paths belonging to the second group. Findings obtained from the analysis of the aggregative sketch map might have important implications for the representation of visual information in maps for different purposes (e.g. city maps, wayfinding maps, schematic maps, etc.), and for the design of physical environments. Knowing what are the major features associated with high-level and low-level imageability elements, and what is the system of relationships among them can effectively contribute to improve the design of urban environments. These may have a positive effect on the way residents perceive the environment (e.g.; Rapoport, 1990), and on the improvement of the visual quality of the city. Past studies have shown that designers have preferences and priorities that generally differ from those of the public. Designers tend to misinterpret public priorities, and these led to erroneous design actions (Groat, 1982; Nasar, 1998). However, nowadays architects and designers are recognizing more than ever that the residents’ knowledge is a critical element for developing appropriate solutions to community design and planning problems. The structural analytical method used in this study can be considered as a major contribution in this direction, which may enable to assist the process of making decisions by designers, planners, researchers and community leaders. Some important issues have escaped the scope of the present work. An aspect to be addressed in future research is how other urban elements such as landmarks, neighborhoods, and borders, and their structural relationships, are evaluated in cities with different sizes, and dissimilar physical structures.
    
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